diff --git a/CHANGELOG.md b/CHANGELOG.md
index 4965727..7c99842 100644
--- a/CHANGELOG.md
+++ b/CHANGELOG.md
@@ -1,5 +1,9 @@
 # Changelog
 
+## Version 0.0.6
+- Added `combine_columns` function
+- Implemented `__eq__` override for `SpatialImage` subclasses
+
 ## Version 0.0.5
 
 - Implementing a placeholder `SpatialFeatureExperiment` class. This version only implements the data structure to hold various geometries but none of the methods except for slicing.
diff --git a/src/spatialexperiment/ProxySFE.py b/src/spatialexperiment/ProxySFE.py
index 08aa778..7c5bc79 100644
--- a/src/spatialexperiment/ProxySFE.py
+++ b/src/spatialexperiment/ProxySFE.py
@@ -8,7 +8,11 @@
 from summarizedexperiment._frameutils import _sanitize_frame
 from summarizedexperiment.RangedSummarizedExperiment import GRangesOrGRangesList
 
-from .SpatialExperiment import SpatialExperiment, _validate_column_data, _validate_sample_ids
+from .SpatialExperiment import (
+    SpatialExperiment,
+    _validate_column_data,
+    _validate_sample_ids,
+)
 
 __author__ = "jkanche"
 __copyright__ = "jkanche"
@@ -44,7 +48,10 @@ def _validate_geometries(geometries: Dict[str, gpd.GeoDataFrame], prop_name: str
 
     for i, geom in enumerate(geometries.values()):
         if not isinstance(geom, gpd.GeoDataFrame):
-            raise TypeError(f"Item {i} in {prop_name} is {type(geom).__name__} " f"rather than `GeoDataFrame`.\n")
+            raise TypeError(
+                f"Item {i} in {prop_name} is {type(geom).__name__} "
+                f"rather than `GeoDataFrame`.\n"
+            )
 
 
 def _validate_annotgeometries(geometries, column_data):
@@ -58,13 +65,16 @@ def _validate_annotgeometries(geometries, column_data):
 
     for i, geom in enumerate(geometries.values()):
         if "sample_id" not in geom.columns:
-            raise ValueError(f"Item {i} of 'annot_geometries' does not have column 'sample_id'.\n")
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"Item {i} of 'annot_geometries' does not have column 'sample_id'.\n"
+            )
         else:
             samples_seen = geom["sample_id"].unique()
             missing = [s for s in samples_seen if s not in sample_ids]
             if len(missing) > 0:
                 raise ValueError(
-                    f"Samples {', '.join(missing)} in item {i} of " f"annot_geometries are absent from 'column_data'.\n"
+                    f"Samples {', '.join(missing)} in item {i} of "
+                    f"annot_geometries are absent from 'column_data'.\n"
                 )
 
 
@@ -75,7 +85,9 @@ def _validate_graph_sample_id(spatial_graphs, column_data):
 
     missing = graph_sample_ids - col_sample_ids
     if missing:
-        raise ValueError(f"Samples {', '.join(missing)} are in the graphs but not 'column_data'.\n")
+        raise ValueError(
+            f"Samples {', '.join(missing)} are in the graphs but not 'column_data'.\n"
+        )
 
 
 def _validate_graph_structure(spatial_graphs):
@@ -89,7 +101,9 @@ def _validate_graph_structure(spatial_graphs):
             "and whose rows are margins (rows, columns, annotation).\n"
         )
     elif not set(spatial_graphs.get_row_names()) == {"row", "col", "annot"}:
-        raise ValueError("Row names of 'spatial_graphs' must be 'row', 'col', and 'annot'.\n")
+        raise ValueError(
+            "Row names of 'spatial_graphs' must be 'row', 'col', and 'annot'.\n"
+        )
 
 
 class ProxySpatialFeatureExperiment(SpatialExperiment):
@@ -404,7 +418,9 @@ def __repr__(self) -> str:
 
         output += ", col_geometries=" + ut.print_truncated_dict(self._col_geometries)
         output += ", row_geometries=" + ut.print_truncated_dict(self._row_geometries)
-        output += ", annot_geometries=" + ut.print_truncated_dict(self._annot_geometries)
+        output += ", annot_geometries=" + ut.print_truncated_dict(
+            self._annot_geometries
+        )
 
         output += ", spatial_graphs=" + self._spatial_graphs.__repr__()
         output += ")"
@@ -448,7 +464,9 @@ def get_unit(self) -> str:
         """Get the coordinate unit."""
         return self._unit
 
-    def set_unit(self, unit: str, in_place: bool = False) -> "ProxySpatialFeatureExperiment":
+    def set_unit(
+        self, unit: str, in_place: bool = False
+    ) -> "ProxySpatialFeatureExperiment":
         """Set the coordinate unit.
 
         Args:
@@ -631,7 +649,9 @@ def set_spatial_graphs(
         Returns:
             A modified ``ProxySpatialFeatureExperiment`` object, either as a copy of the original or as a reference to the (in-place-modified) original.
         """
-        _graphs = _sanitize_spatial_graphs(graphs, list(set(self.get_column_data().get_column("sample_id"))))
+        _graphs = _sanitize_spatial_graphs(
+            graphs, list(set(self.get_column_data().get_column("sample_id")))
+        )
         _validate_graph_structure(_graphs)
         _validate_graph_sample_id(_graphs, self.get_column_data())
 
@@ -658,7 +678,9 @@ def spatial_graphs(self, graphs: Optional[BiocFrame]):
     ################################
 
     def get_slice(
-        self, rows: Optional[Union[str, int, bool, List]] = None, columns: Optional[Union[str, int, bool, List]] = None
+        self,
+        rows: Optional[Union[str, int, bool, List]] = None,
+        columns: Optional[Union[str, int, bool, List]] = None,
     ) -> "ProxySpatialFeatureExperiment":
         """Get a slice of the experiment.
 
@@ -675,7 +697,9 @@ def get_slice(
         sfe = super().get_slice(rows=rows, columns=columns)
 
         slicer = self._generic_slice(rows=rows, columns=columns)
-        do_slice_cols = not (isinstance(slicer.col_indices, slice) and slicer.col_indices == slice(None))
+        do_slice_cols = not (
+            isinstance(slicer.col_indices, slice) and slicer.col_indices == slice(None)
+        )
 
         # Update geometries and graphs
         if do_slice_cols:
@@ -698,7 +722,9 @@ def get_slice(
             new_graphs = None
             if self.spatial_graphs is not None:
                 # Keep only columns for remaining samples
-                cols_to_keep = [c for c in self.spatial_graphs.columns if c in column_sample_ids]
+                cols_to_keep = [
+                    c for c in self.spatial_graphs.columns if c in column_sample_ids
+                ]
                 if cols_to_keep:
                     new_graphs = self.spatial_graphs[cols_to_keep]
 
@@ -743,7 +769,10 @@ def get_slice(
     ################################
 
     def set_column_data(
-        self, cols: Optional[BiocFrame], replace_column_names: bool = False, in_place: bool = False
+        self,
+        cols: Optional[BiocFrame],
+        replace_column_names: bool = False,
+        in_place: bool = False,
     ) -> "ProxySpatialFeatureExperiment":
         """Override: Set sample data.
 
diff --git a/src/spatialexperiment/SpatialExperiment.py b/src/spatialexperiment/SpatialExperiment.py
index 1c3fadb..9f31e1e 100644
--- a/src/spatialexperiment/SpatialExperiment.py
+++ b/src/spatialexperiment/SpatialExperiment.py
@@ -3,13 +3,25 @@
 from urllib.parse import urlparse
 from warnings import warn
 
-import biocutils as ut
 import numpy as np
-from biocframe import BiocFrame
 from PIL import Image
-from singlecellexperiment import SingleCellExperiment
+
+from biocframe import BiocFrame
+import biocutils as ut
+from summarizedexperiment._combineutils import (
+    check_assays_are_equal,
+    merge_assays,
+    merge_se_colnames,
+    relaxed_merge_assays
+)
 from summarizedexperiment._frameutils import _sanitize_frame
 from summarizedexperiment.RangedSummarizedExperiment import GRangesOrGRangesList
+from singlecellexperiment import SingleCellExperiment
+from singlecellexperiment._combineutils import (
+    merge_generic,
+    relaxed_merge_generic,
+    relaxed_merge_numpy_generic
+)
 
 from ._imgutils import retrieve_rows_by_id
 from ._validators import (
@@ -21,7 +33,8 @@
     _validate_spatial_coords,
     _validate_spatial_coords_names,
 )
-from .SpatialImage import VirtualSpatialImage, construct_spatial_image_class
+from ._combineutils import merge_spatial_frames, merge_spatial_coordinates
+from .SpatialImage import construct_spatial_image_class, VirtualSpatialImage
 
 __author__ = "keviny2"
 __copyright__ = "keviny2"
@@ -189,7 +202,9 @@ def __init__(
         column_data = _sanitize_frame(column_data, num_rows=self.shape[1])
 
         if not column_data.has_column("sample_id"):
-            column_data["sample_id"] = ["sample01"] * self.shape[1]  # hard code default sample_id as "sample01"
+            column_data["sample_id"] = ["sample01"] * self.shape[
+                1
+            ]  # hard code default sample_id as "sample01"
 
         spatial_coords = _sanitize_frame(spatial_coords, num_rows=self.shape[1])
         img_data = _sanitize_frame(img_data, num_rows=0)
@@ -202,7 +217,9 @@ def __init__(
             _validate_column_data(column_data=column_data)
             _validate_img_data(img_data=img_data)
             _validate_sample_ids(column_data=column_data, img_data=img_data)
-            _validate_spatial_coords(spatial_coords=spatial_coords, column_data=column_data)
+            _validate_spatial_coords(
+                spatial_coords=spatial_coords, column_data=column_data
+            )
 
     #########################
     ######>> Copying <<######
@@ -306,10 +323,14 @@ def __repr__(self) -> str:
             output += ", row_ranges=" + self._row_ranges.__repr__()
 
         if self._alternative_experiments is not None:
-            output += ", alternative_experiments=" + ut.print_truncated_list(self.alternative_experiment_names)
+            output += ", alternative_experiments=" + ut.print_truncated_list(
+                self.alternative_experiment_names
+            )
 
         if self._reduced_dims is not None:
-            output += ", reduced_dims=" + ut.print_truncated_list(self.reduced_dim_names)
+            output += ", reduced_dims=" + ut.print_truncated_list(
+                self.reduced_dim_names
+            )
 
         if self._main_experiment_name is not None:
             output += ", main_experiment_name=" + self._main_experiment_name
@@ -337,14 +358,10 @@ def __str__(self) -> str:
 
         output += f"assays({len(self.assay_names)}): {ut.print_truncated_list(self.assay_names)}\n"
 
-        output += (
-            f"row_data columns({len(self._rows.column_names)}): {ut.print_truncated_list(self._rows.column_names)}\n"
-        )
+        output += f"row_data columns({len(self._rows.column_names)}): {ut.print_truncated_list(self._rows.column_names)}\n"
         output += f"row_names({0 if self._row_names is None else len(self._row_names)}): {' ' if self._row_names is None else ut.print_truncated_list(self._row_names)}\n"
 
-        output += (
-            f"column_data columns({len(self._cols.column_names)}): {ut.print_truncated_list(self._cols.column_names)}\n"
-        )
+        output += f"column_data columns({len(self._cols.column_names)}): {ut.print_truncated_list(self._cols.column_names)}\n"
         output += f"column_names({0 if self._column_names is None else len(self._column_names)}): {' ' if self._column_names is None else ut.print_truncated_list(self._column_names)}\n"
 
         output += f"main_experiment_name: {' ' if self._main_experiment_name is None else self._main_experiment_name}\n"
@@ -377,7 +394,9 @@ def get_spatial_coords(self) -> BiocFrame:
         return self.get_spatial_coordinates()
 
     def set_spatial_coordinates(
-        self, spatial_coords: Optional[Union[BiocFrame, np.ndarray]], in_place: bool = False
+        self,
+        spatial_coords: Optional[Union[BiocFrame, np.ndarray]],
+        in_place: bool = False,
     ) -> "SpatialExperiment":
         """Set new spatial coordinates.
 
@@ -410,10 +429,14 @@ def set_spatial_coordinates(
         return output
 
     def set_spatial_coords(
-        self, spatial_coords: Optional[Union[BiocFrame, np.ndarray]], in_place: bool = False
+        self,
+        spatial_coords: Optional[Union[BiocFrame, np.ndarray]],
+        in_place: bool = False,
     ) -> "SpatialExperiment":
         """Alias for :py:meth:`~set_spatial_coordinates`."""
-        return self.set_spatial_coordinates(spatial_coords=spatial_coords, in_place=in_place)
+        return self.set_spatial_coordinates(
+            spatial_coords=spatial_coords, in_place=in_place
+        )
 
     @property
     def spatial_coords(self) -> BiocFrame:
@@ -435,7 +458,9 @@ def spatial_coordinates(self) -> BiocFrame:
         return self.get_spatial_coordinates()
 
     @spatial_coordinates.setter
-    def spatial_coordinates(self, spatial_coords: Optional[Union[BiocFrame, np.ndarray]]):
+    def spatial_coordinates(
+        self, spatial_coords: Optional[Union[BiocFrame, np.ndarray]]
+    ):
         """Alias for :py:meth:`~set_spatial_coordinates`."""
         warn(
             "Setting property 'spatial_coords' is an in-place operation, use 'set_spatial_coordinates' instead.",
@@ -485,15 +510,21 @@ def set_spatial_coordinates_names(
             new_spatial_coords = self._spatial_coords
         else:
             _validate_spatial_coords_names(spatial_coords_names, self._spatial_coords)
-            new_spatial_coords = self._spatial_coords.set_column_names(spatial_coords_names)
+            new_spatial_coords = self._spatial_coords.set_column_names(
+                spatial_coords_names
+            )
 
         output = self._define_output(in_place)
         output._spatial_coords = new_spatial_coords
         return output
 
-    def set_spatial_coords_names(self, spatial_coords_names: List[str], in_place: bool = False) -> "SpatialExperiment":
+    def set_spatial_coords_names(
+        self, spatial_coords_names: List[str], in_place: bool = False
+    ) -> "SpatialExperiment":
         """Alias for :py:meth:`~set_spatial_coordinates_names`."""
-        return self.set_spatial_coordinates_names(spatial_coords_names=spatial_coords_names, in_place=in_place)
+        return self.set_spatial_coordinates_names(
+            spatial_coords_names=spatial_coords_names, in_place=in_place
+        )
 
     @property
     def spatial_coords_names(self) -> List[str]:
@@ -507,7 +538,9 @@ def spatial_coords_names(self, spatial_coords_names: List[str]):
             "Setting property 'spatial_coords_names' is an in-place operation, use 'set_spatial_coordinates_names' instead.",
             UserWarning,
         )
-        self.set_spatial_coordinates_names(spatial_coords_names=spatial_coords_names, in_place=True)
+        self.set_spatial_coordinates_names(
+            spatial_coords_names=spatial_coords_names, in_place=True
+        )
 
     @property
     def spatial_coordinates_names(self) -> List[str]:
@@ -521,7 +554,9 @@ def spatial_coordinates_names(self, spatial_coords_names: List[str]):
             "Setting property 'spatial_coords_names' is an in-place operation, use 'set_spatial_coordinates_names' instead.",
             UserWarning,
         )
-        self.set_spatial_coordinates_names(spatial_coords_names=spatial_coords_names, in_place=True)
+        self.set_spatial_coordinates_names(
+            spatial_coords_names=spatial_coords_names, in_place=True
+        )
 
     ##############################
     ########>> img_data <<########
@@ -539,7 +574,9 @@ def get_img_data(self) -> BiocFrame:
         """Alias for :py:meth:`~get_image_data`."""
         return self.get_image_data()
 
-    def set_image_data(self, img_data: Optional[BiocFrame], in_place: bool = False) -> "SpatialExperiment":
+    def set_image_data(
+        self, img_data: Optional[BiocFrame], in_place: bool = False
+    ) -> "SpatialExperiment":
         """Set new image data.
 
         Args:
@@ -568,7 +605,9 @@ def set_image_data(self, img_data: Optional[BiocFrame], in_place: bool = False)
         output._img_data = img_data
         return output
 
-    def set_img_data(self, img_data: BiocFrame, in_place: bool = False) -> "SpatialExperiment":
+    def set_img_data(
+        self, img_data: BiocFrame, in_place: bool = False
+    ) -> "SpatialExperiment":
         """Alias for :py:meth:`~set_image_data`."""
         return self.set_image_data(img_data=img_data, in_place=in_place)
 
@@ -605,7 +644,9 @@ def image_data(self, img_data: BiocFrame):
     ##############################
 
     def get_scale_factors(
-        self, sample_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None, image_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None
+        self,
+        sample_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None,
+        image_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None,
     ) -> List[float]:
         """Return scale factor(s) of image(s) based on the provided sample and image ids.
             See :py:meth:`~get_img` for more details on the behavior for various
@@ -628,7 +669,9 @@ def get_scale_factors(
         _validate_id(sample_id)
         _validate_id(image_id)
 
-        img_data_subset = retrieve_rows_by_id(img_data=self.img_data, sample_id=sample_id, image_id=image_id)
+        img_data_subset = retrieve_rows_by_id(
+            img_data=self.img_data, sample_id=sample_id, image_id=image_id
+        )
 
         if img_data_subset.shape[0] == 1:
             return img_data_subset["scale_factor"][0]
@@ -640,7 +683,10 @@ def get_scale_factors(
     ################################
 
     def set_column_data(
-        self, cols: Optional[BiocFrame], replace_column_names: bool = False, in_place: bool = False
+        self,
+        cols: Optional[BiocFrame],
+        replace_column_names: bool = False,
+        in_place: bool = False,
     ) -> "SpatialExperiment":
         """Override: Set sample data.
 
@@ -682,14 +728,18 @@ def set_column_data(
     ################################
 
     def get_slice(
-        self, rows: Optional[Union[str, int, bool, Sequence]], columns: Optional[Union[str, int, bool, Sequence]]
+        self,
+        rows: Optional[Union[str, int, bool, Sequence]],
+        columns: Optional[Union[str, int, bool, Sequence]],
     ) -> "SpatialExperiment":
         """Alias for :py:attr:`~__getitem__`."""
 
         spe = super().get_slice(rows=rows, columns=columns)
 
         slicer = self._generic_slice(rows=rows, columns=columns)
-        do_slice_cols = not (isinstance(slicer.col_indices, slice) and slicer.col_indices == slice(None))
+        do_slice_cols = not (
+            isinstance(slicer.col_indices, slice) and slicer.col_indices == slice(None)
+        )
 
         new_spatial_coords = None
 
@@ -697,7 +747,9 @@ def get_slice(
             new_spatial_coords = self.spatial_coords[slicer.col_indices, :]
 
         column_sample_ids = set(spe.column_data["sample_id"])
-        mask = [sample_id in column_sample_ids for sample_id in self.img_data["sample_id"]]
+        mask = [
+            sample_id in column_sample_ids for sample_id in self.img_data["sample_id"]
+        ]
 
         new_img_data = self.img_data[mask,]
 
@@ -724,7 +776,9 @@ def get_slice(
     ################################
 
     def get_img(
-        self, sample_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None, image_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None
+        self,
+        sample_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None,
+        image_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None,
     ) -> Union[VirtualSpatialImage, List[VirtualSpatialImage]]:
         """
         Retrieve spatial images based on the provided sample and image ids.
@@ -768,7 +822,9 @@ def get_img(
         _validate_id(sample_id)
         _validate_id(image_id)
 
-        img_data_subset = retrieve_rows_by_id(img_data=self.img_data, sample_id=sample_id, image_id=image_id)
+        img_data_subset = retrieve_rows_by_id(
+            img_data=self.img_data, sample_id=sample_id, image_id=image_id
+        )
 
         if img_data_subset is None:
             return []
@@ -818,7 +874,9 @@ def add_img(
         Raises:
             ValueError: If the sample_id and image_id pair already exists.
         """
-        _validate_sample_image_ids(img_data=self._img_data, new_sample_id=sample_id, new_image_id=image_id)
+        _validate_sample_image_ids(
+            img_data=self._img_data, new_sample_id=sample_id, new_image_id=image_id
+        )
 
         if isinstance(image_source, (str, Path)):
             is_url = urlparse(str(image_source)).scheme in ("http", "https", "ftp")
@@ -846,12 +904,21 @@ def add_img(
 
     # TODO: implement rmv_img()
     def rmv_img(
-        self, sample_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None, image_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None
+        self,
+        sample_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None,
+        image_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None,
     ) -> "SpatialExperiment":
         raise NotImplementedError()
 
-    def img_source(self, sample_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None, image_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None, path=False):
-        raise NotImplementedError("This function is irrelevant because it is for `RemoteSpatialImages`")
+    def img_source(
+        self,
+        sample_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None,
+        image_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None,
+        path=False,
+    ):
+        raise NotImplementedError(
+            "This function is irrelevant because it is for `RemoteSpatialImages`"
+        )
 
     def img_raster(self, sample_id=None, image_id=None):
         # NOTE: this function seems redundant, might be an artifact of the different subclasses of SpatialImage in the R implementation? just call `get_img()` for now
@@ -870,3 +937,147 @@ def to_spatial_experiment():
     ################################
     #######>> combine ops <<########
     ################################
+
+    def relaxed_combine_columns(self, *other) -> "SpatialExperiment":
+        """Wrapper around :py:func:`~relaxed_combine_columns`."""
+        return relaxed_combine_columns(self, *other)
+
+    def combine_columns(self, *other) -> "SpatialExperiment":
+        """Wrapper around :py:func:`~combine_columns`."""
+        return combine_columns(self, *other)
+
+
+################################
+#######>> combine ops <<########
+################################
+
+
+@ut.combine_columns.register(SpatialExperiment)
+def combine_columns(*x: SpatialExperiment) -> SpatialExperiment:
+    """Combine multiple ``SpatialExperiment`` objects by column.
+
+    All assays must contain the same assay names. If you need a
+    flexible combine operation, checkout :py:func:`~relaxed_combine_columns`.
+
+    Returns:
+        A combined ``SpatialExperiment``.
+    """
+    warn(
+        "'row_pairs' and 'column_pairs' are currently ignored during this operation.",
+        UserWarning,
+    )
+
+    first = x[0]
+    _all_assays = [y.assays for y in x]
+    check_assays_are_equal(_all_assays)
+    _new_assays = merge_assays(_all_assays, by="column")
+
+    _new_col_names = merge_se_colnames(x)
+
+    _new_rdim = None
+    try:
+        _new_rdim = merge_generic(x, by="row", attr="reduced_dims")
+    except Exception as e:
+        warn(
+            f"Cannot combine 'reduced_dimensions' across experiments, {str(e)}",
+            UserWarning,
+        )
+
+    _new_alt_expt = None
+    try:
+        _new_alt_expt = merge_generic(x, by="column", attr="alternative_experiments")
+    except Exception as e:
+        warn(
+            f"Cannot combine 'alternative_experiments' across experiments, {str(e)}",
+            UserWarning,
+        )
+
+    _all_spatial_coords = [y._spatial_coords for y in x]
+    _new_spatial_coords = merge_spatial_coordinates(_all_spatial_coords)
+
+    _new_cols, _new_img_data = merge_spatial_frames(x)
+
+    current_class_const = type(first)
+    return current_class_const(
+        assays=_new_assays,
+        row_ranges=first._row_ranges,
+        row_data=first._rows,
+        column_data=_new_cols,
+        row_names=first._row_names,
+        column_names=_new_col_names,
+        metadata=first._metadata,
+        reduced_dims=_new_rdim,
+        main_experiment_name=first._main_experiment_name,
+        alternative_experiments=_new_alt_expt,
+        spatial_coords=_new_spatial_coords,
+        img_data=_new_img_data,
+    )
+
+
+@ut.relaxed_combine_columns.register(SpatialExperiment)
+def relaxed_combine_columns(
+    *x: SpatialExperiment,
+) -> SpatialExperiment:
+    """A relaxed version of the :py:func:`~biocutils.combine_rows.combine_columns` method for
+    :py:class:`~SpatialExperiment` objects.  Whereas ``combine_columns`` expects that all objects have the same rows,
+    ``relaxed_combine_columns`` allows for different rows. Absent columns in any object are filled in with appropriate
+    placeholder values before combining.
+
+    Args:
+        x:
+            One or more ``SpatialExperiment`` objects, possibly with differences in the
+            number and identity of their rows.
+
+    Returns:
+        A ``SpatialExperiment`` that combines all ``experiments`` along their columns and contains
+        the union of all rows. Rows absent in any ``x`` are filled in
+        with placeholders consisting of Nones or masked NumPy values.
+    """
+    warn(
+        "'row_pairs' and 'column_pairs' are currently ignored during this operation.",
+        UserWarning,
+    )
+
+    first = x[0]
+    _new_assays = relaxed_merge_assays(x, by="column")
+
+    _new_col_names = merge_se_colnames(x)
+
+    _new_rdim = None
+    try:
+        _new_rdim = relaxed_merge_numpy_generic(x, by="row", attr="reduced_dims")
+    except Exception as e:
+        warn(
+            f"Cannot combine 'reduced_dimensions' across experiments, {str(e)}",
+            UserWarning,
+        )
+
+    _new_alt_expt = None
+    try:
+        _new_alt_expt = relaxed_merge_generic(x, by="column", attr="alternative_experiments")
+    except Exception as e:
+        warn(
+            f"Cannot combine 'alternative_experiments' across experiments, {str(e)}",
+            UserWarning,
+        )
+
+    _all_spatial_coords = [y._spatial_coords for y in x]
+    _new_spatial_coords = merge_spatial_coordinates(_all_spatial_coords)
+
+    _new_cols, _new_img_data = merge_spatial_frames(x)
+
+    current_class_const = type(first)
+    return current_class_const(
+        assays=_new_assays,
+        row_ranges=first._row_ranges,
+        row_data=first._rows,
+        column_data=_new_cols,
+        row_names=first._row_names,
+        column_names=_new_col_names,
+        metadata=first._metadata,
+        reduced_dims=_new_rdim,
+        main_experiment_name=first._main_experiment_name,
+        alternative_experiments=_new_alt_expt,
+        spatial_coords=_new_spatial_coords,
+        img_data=_new_img_data,
+    )
diff --git a/src/spatialexperiment/SpatialImage.py b/src/spatialexperiment/SpatialImage.py
index 3a90872..4218a2a 100644
--- a/src/spatialexperiment/SpatialImage.py
+++ b/src/spatialexperiment/SpatialImage.py
@@ -50,7 +50,9 @@ def get_metadata(self) -> dict:
         """
         return self._metadata
 
-    def set_metadata(self, metadata: dict, in_place: bool = False) -> "VirtualSpatialImage":
+    def set_metadata(
+        self, metadata: dict, in_place: bool = False
+    ) -> "VirtualSpatialImage":
         """Set additional metadata.
 
         Args:
@@ -65,7 +67,9 @@ def set_metadata(self, metadata: dict, in_place: bool = False) -> "VirtualSpatia
             or as a reference to the (in-place-modified) original.
         """
         if not isinstance(metadata, dict):
-            raise TypeError(f"`metadata` must be a dictionary, provided {type(metadata)}.")
+            raise TypeError(
+                f"`metadata` must be a dictionary, provided {type(metadata)}."
+            )
         output = self._define_output(in_place)
         output._metadata = metadata
         return output
@@ -146,7 +150,9 @@ def _sanitize_loaded_image(image):
 class LoadedSpatialImage(VirtualSpatialImage):
     """Class for images loaded into memory."""
 
-    def __init__(self, image: Union[Image.Image, np.ndarray], metadata: Optional[dict] = None):
+    def __init__(
+        self, image: Union[Image.Image, np.ndarray], metadata: Optional[dict] = None
+    ):
         """Initialize the object.
 
         Args:
@@ -250,7 +256,9 @@ def get_image(self) -> Image.Image:
 
         return self._image
 
-    def set_image(self, image: Union[Image.Image, np.ndarray], in_place: bool = False) -> "LoadedSpatialImage":
+    def set_image(
+        self, image: Union[Image.Image, np.ndarray], in_place: bool = False
+    ) -> "LoadedSpatialImage":
         """Set new image.
 
         Args:
@@ -402,7 +410,9 @@ def get_path(self) -> Path:
         """Get the path to the image file."""
         return self._path
 
-    def set_path(self, path: Union[str, Path], in_place: bool = False) -> "StoredSpatialImage":
+    def set_path(
+        self, path: Union[str, Path], in_place: bool = False
+    ) -> "StoredSpatialImage":
         """Update the path to the image file.
 
         Args:
@@ -463,7 +473,9 @@ def _validate_url(url):
 class RemoteSpatialImage(VirtualSpatialImage):
     """Class for remotely hosted images."""
 
-    def __init__(self, url: str, metadata: Optional[dict] = None, validate: bool = True):
+    def __init__(
+        self, url: str, metadata: Optional[dict] = None, validate: bool = True
+    ):
         """Initialize the object.
 
         Args:
@@ -494,7 +506,7 @@ def _define_output(self, in_place: bool = False) -> "RemoteSpatialImage":
     #########################
     ######>> Equality <<#####
     #########################
-    
+
     def __eq__(self, other) -> bool:
         return super().__eq__(other) and self.url == other.url
 
diff --git a/src/spatialexperiment/_combineutils.py b/src/spatialexperiment/_combineutils.py
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b40641
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/spatialexperiment/_combineutils.py
@@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
+from __future__ import annotations
+from typing import List, Tuple
+
+from warnings import warn
+from copy import deepcopy
+import itertools
+
+from biocframe import BiocFrame
+import biocutils as ut
+from spatialexperiment import SpatialExperiment
+
+
+def _append_indices_to_samples(bframes: List[BiocFrame]) -> List[BiocFrame]:
+    """Append indices to sample IDs for a list of `BiocFrames`.
+
+    For each `BiocFrame`, appends an index to all sample IDs to ensure uniqueness
+    across multiple frames.
+
+    Args:
+        bframes: List of `BiocFrame` objects containing sample IDs.
+
+    Returns:
+        List of `BiocFrame`s with modified sample IDs.
+    """
+    modified_bframes = []
+    for i, bframe in enumerate(bframes, start=1):
+        bframe_copy = deepcopy(bframe)
+        bframe_copy["sample_id"] = [
+            f"{sample_id}_{i}" for sample_id in bframe_copy["sample_id"]
+        ]
+        modified_bframes.append(bframe_copy)
+    return modified_bframes
+
+
+def merge_spatial_frames(x: List[SpatialExperiment], relaxed: bool = False) -> Tuple[BiocFrame, BiocFrame]:
+    """Merge column data and image data from multiple ``SpatialExperiment`` objects.
+
+    If duplicate sample IDs exist across objects, appends indices to make them unique.
+    Sample IDs in column data determine the uniqueness check as they are the superset
+    of IDs in image data.
+
+    Args:
+        x: List of ``SpatialExperiment`` objects
+        relaxed: If `True`, allows frames with different columns to be combined. 
+            Absent columns in any frame are filled with appropriate placeholder values.
+            Defaults to `False`.
+
+    Returns:
+        A tuple with the merged column data and image data.
+    """
+    cols = [y._cols for y in x]
+    img_datas = [y._img_data for y in x]
+
+    expected_unique = sum([len(set(_cols["sample_id"])) for _cols in cols])
+    all_sample_ids = list(
+        itertools.chain.from_iterable(_cols["sample_id"] for _cols in cols)
+    )
+
+    if len(set(all_sample_ids)) < expected_unique:
+        warn(
+            "'sample_id's are duplicated across 'SpatialExperiment' objects to 'combine_columns'; appending sample indices."
+        )
+        modified_columns = _append_indices_to_samples(cols)
+        modified_img_data = _append_indices_to_samples(img_datas)
+    else:
+        modified_columns = cols
+        modified_img_data = img_datas
+
+    if relaxed:
+        _new_cols = ut.relaxed_combine_rows(*modified_columns)
+        _new_img_data = ut.relaxed_combine_rows(*modified_img_data)
+    else:
+        _new_cols = ut.combine_rows(*modified_columns)
+        _new_img_data = ut.combine_rows(*modified_img_data)
+    return _new_cols, _new_img_data
+
+
+def merge_spatial_coordinates(spatial_coords: List[BiocFrame], relaxed: bool = False) -> BiocFrame:
+    """Merge spatial coordinates from multiple frames.
+
+    Args:
+        spatial_coords: List of `BiocFrame`s containing spatial coordinates.
+        relaxed: If `True`, allows frames with different columns to be combined. 
+            Absent columns in any frame are filled with appropriate placeholder values.
+            Defaults to `False`.
+
+    Returns:
+        A merged BiocFrame containing all spatial coordinates.
+
+    Raises:
+        ValueError: If spatial coordinates have different numbers of columns.
+
+    Warns:
+        If dimension names are not consistent across all `BiocFrame`s.
+    """
+    first_shape = spatial_coords[0].shape[1]
+    if not all(coords.shape[1] == first_shape for coords in spatial_coords):
+        raise ValueError("Not all 'spatial_coords' have the same number of columns.")
+
+    first_columns = spatial_coords[0].columns
+    if not all(coords.columns == first_columns for coords in spatial_coords):
+        warn("Not all 'spatial_coords' have the same dimension names.")
+
+    if relaxed:
+        _new_spatial_coords = ut.relaxed_combine_rows(*spatial_coords)
+    else:
+        _new_spatial_coords = ut.combine_rows(*spatial_coords)
+    return _new_spatial_coords
diff --git a/src/spatialexperiment/_imgutils.py b/src/spatialexperiment/_imgutils.py
index c9c2c29..9aa67b0 100644
--- a/src/spatialexperiment/_imgutils.py
+++ b/src/spatialexperiment/_imgutils.py
@@ -8,7 +8,9 @@
 
 
 def retrieve_rows_by_id(
-    img_data: BiocFrame, sample_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None, image_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None
+    img_data: BiocFrame,
+    sample_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None,
+    image_id: Union[str, bool, None] = None,
 ) -> Union[BiocFrame, None]:
     """
     Retrieve rows from `img_data` based on specified `sample_id` and `image_id`.
@@ -51,11 +53,15 @@ def retrieve_rows_by_id(
                 else:
                     subset = subset.combine_rows(row)
         else:
-            subset = img_data[[_image_id == image_id for _image_id in img_data["image_id"]], :]
+            subset = img_data[
+                [_image_id == image_id for _image_id in img_data["image_id"]], :
+            ]
 
     elif sample_id is None:
         first_sample_id = img_data["sample_id"][0]
-        first_sample = img_data[[_sample_id == first_sample_id for _sample_id in img_data["sample_id"]], :]
+        first_sample = img_data[
+            [_sample_id == first_sample_id for _sample_id in img_data["sample_id"]], :
+        ]
 
         if image_id is True:
             subset = first_sample
@@ -63,10 +69,14 @@ def retrieve_rows_by_id(
         elif image_id is None:
             subset = first_sample[0, :]
         else:
-            subset = first_sample[[_image_id == image_id for _image_id in img_data["image_id"]], :]
+            subset = first_sample[
+                [_image_id == image_id for _image_id in img_data["image_id"]], :
+            ]
 
     else:
-        selected_sample = img_data[[_sample_id == sample_id for _sample_id in img_data["sample_id"]], :]
+        selected_sample = img_data[
+            [_sample_id == sample_id for _sample_id in img_data["sample_id"]], :
+        ]
 
         if selected_sample.shape[0] == 0:
             subset = selected_sample
@@ -75,6 +85,8 @@ def retrieve_rows_by_id(
         elif image_id is None:
             subset = selected_sample[0, :]
         else:
-            subset = selected_sample[[_image_id == image_id for _image_id in selected_sample["image_id"]]]
+            subset = selected_sample[
+                [_image_id == image_id for _image_id in selected_sample["image_id"]]
+            ]
 
     return subset
diff --git a/src/spatialexperiment/_initutils.py b/src/spatialexperiment/_initutils.py
index edaa4c2..1569889 100644
--- a/src/spatialexperiment/_initutils.py
+++ b/src/spatialexperiment/_initutils.py
@@ -33,7 +33,11 @@ def construct_spatial_coords_from_names(
 
     current_column_data = _sanitize_frame(column_data, num_rows=column_data.shape[1])
 
-    missing_names = [name for name in spatial_coords_names if name not in current_column_data.column_names]
+    missing_names = [
+        name
+        for name in spatial_coords_names
+        if name not in current_column_data.column_names
+    ]
     if missing_names:
         raise ValueError(
             f"The following names in `spatial_coords_names` are missing from `column_data`: {missing_names}"
@@ -44,7 +48,11 @@ def construct_spatial_coords_from_names(
     column_data_subset = deepcopy(
         current_column_data[
             :,
-            [col for col in current_column_data.column_names if col not in spatial_coords_names],
+            [
+                col
+                for col in current_column_data.column_names
+                if col not in spatial_coords_names
+            ],
         ]
     )
 
@@ -52,7 +60,11 @@ def construct_spatial_coords_from_names(
 
 
 def construct_img_data(
-    sample_id: str, image_id: str, image_sources: List[str], scale_factors: List[float], load_image: bool = False
+    sample_id: str,
+    image_id: str,
+    image_sources: List[str],
+    scale_factors: List[float],
+    load_image: bool = False,
 ) -> BiocFrame:
     """Construct the image data for a `SpatialExperiment`.
 
@@ -77,7 +89,9 @@ def construct_img_data(
         A `BiocFrame` representing the image data for a `SpatialExperiment`.
     """
     if not len(image_id) == len(image_sources) == len(scale_factors):
-        raise ValueError("'image_id', 'image_sources' and 'scale_factors' are not the same length.")
+        raise ValueError(
+            "'image_id', 'image_sources' and 'scale_factors' are not the same length."
+        )
 
     spis = []
     for image_source in image_sources:
diff --git a/src/spatialexperiment/_validators.py b/src/spatialexperiment/_validators.py
index 27a62d5..a3ae86e 100644
--- a/src/spatialexperiment/_validators.py
+++ b/src/spatialexperiment/_validators.py
@@ -13,7 +13,9 @@ def _validate_spatial_coords_names(spatial_coords_names, spatial_coords):
         raise TypeError("'spatial_coords_names' is not a list of strings")
 
     if len(spatial_coords_names) != spatial_coords.shape[1]:
-        raise ValueError(f"Expected {spatial_coords.shape[1]} names. Got {len(spatial_coords_names)} names.")
+        raise ValueError(
+            f"Expected {spatial_coords.shape[1]} names. Got {len(spatial_coords_names)} names."
+        )
 
 
 def _validate_column_data(column_data):
@@ -43,7 +45,9 @@ def _validate_sample_image_ids(img_data, new_sample_id, new_image_id):
     for row in img_data:
         data = row[1]
         if data["sample_id"] == new_sample_id and data["image_id"] == new_image_id:
-            raise ValueError(f"Image with Sample ID: {new_sample_id} and Image ID: {new_image_id} already exists")
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"Image with Sample ID: {new_sample_id} and Image ID: {new_image_id} already exists"
+            )
 
     # TODO: check if 'new_sample_id' is present in column_data['sample_id']
 
@@ -54,7 +58,7 @@ def _validate_spatial_coords(spatial_coords, column_data):
 
     if not hasattr(spatial_coords, "shape"):
         raise TypeError(
-            f"Spatial coordinates must be a dataframe-like object."
+            "Spatial coordinates must be a dataframe-like object."
             "Does not contain a `shape` property."
         )
 
@@ -87,7 +91,9 @@ def _validate_sample_ids(column_data, img_data):
     column_data_sample_ids = set(column_data["sample_id"])
 
     if not img_data_sample_ids <= column_data_sample_ids:
-        raise ValueError("All 'sample_id's in 'img_data' must be present in 'column_data['sample_id']")
+        raise ValueError(
+            "All 'sample_id's in 'img_data' must be present in 'column_data['sample_id']"
+        )
 
     if img_data_sample_ids != column_data_sample_ids:
         warnings.warn(
diff --git a/tests/conftest.py b/tests/conftest.py
index 0123424..386b519 100644
--- a/tests/conftest.py
+++ b/tests/conftest.py
@@ -43,6 +43,10 @@ def spe():
         }
     )
 
+    row_names = BiocFrame({"row_names": range(nrows)})
+
+    column_names = BiocFrame({"column_names": range(ncols)})
+
     x_coords = np.random.uniform(low=0.0, high=100.0, size=ncols)
     y_coords = np.random.uniform(low=0.0, high=100.0, size=ncols)
 
@@ -65,6 +69,8 @@ def spe():
         assays={"counts": counts},
         row_data=row_data,
         column_data=col_data,
+        row_names=row_names,
+        column_names=column_names,
         spatial_coords=spatial_coords,
         img_data=img_data,
     )
diff --git a/tests/test_img_data_methods.py b/tests/test_img_data_methods.py
index d36ef4c..6e9adca 100644
--- a/tests/test_img_data_methods.py
+++ b/tests/test_img_data_methods.py
@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
 import pytest
 from copy import deepcopy
-from spatialexperiment import construct_spatial_image_class
 from spatialexperiment.SpatialImage import VirtualSpatialImage
 
 __author__ = "keviny2"
diff --git a/tests/test_pSFE.py b/tests/test_pSFE.py
index 93521f8..7bfed7e 100644
--- a/tests/test_pSFE.py
+++ b/tests/test_pSFE.py
@@ -9,6 +9,7 @@
 __copyright__ = "jkanche"
 __license__ = "MIT"
 
+
 def test_init_basic():
     nrows = 200
     ncols = 500
@@ -17,11 +18,13 @@ def test_init_basic():
 
     assert isinstance(tspe, ProxySpatialFeatureExperiment)
 
+
 def test_init_empty():
     tspe = ProxySpatialFeatureExperiment()
 
     assert isinstance(tspe, ProxySpatialFeatureExperiment)
 
+
 def test_init_with_col_geoms():
     nrows = 200
     ncols = 500
@@ -33,7 +36,9 @@ def test_init_with_col_geoms():
         ]
     )
 
-    colgeoms = {"polygons" : gpd.GeoDataFrame({"geometry": polys})}
-    tspe = ProxySpatialFeatureExperiment(assays={"spots": counts}, col_geometries=colgeoms)
+    colgeoms = {"polygons": gpd.GeoDataFrame({"geometry": polys})}
+    tspe = ProxySpatialFeatureExperiment(
+        assays={"spots": counts}, col_geometries=colgeoms
+    )
 
-    assert isinstance(tspe, ProxySpatialFeatureExperiment)
\ No newline at end of file
+    assert isinstance(tspe, ProxySpatialFeatureExperiment)
diff --git a/tests/test_spe.py b/tests/test_spe.py
index a875b1c..7936222 100644
--- a/tests/test_spe.py
+++ b/tests/test_spe.py
@@ -22,6 +22,7 @@ def test_SPE_empty_constructor():
     assert "sample_id" in tspe.column_data.columns.as_list()
     assert tspe.column_data.shape == (tspe.shape[1], 1)
 
+
 def test_spe_basic():
     nrows = 200
     ncols = 500
diff --git a/tests/test_spe_combine.py b/tests/test_spe_combine.py
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..23d456b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/test_spe_combine.py
@@ -0,0 +1,106 @@
+from copy import deepcopy
+
+import pytest
+import numpy as np
+import biocutils as ut
+from spatialexperiment import SpatialExperiment
+
+__author__ = "keviny2"
+__copyright__ = "keviny2"
+__license__ = "MIT"
+
+
+def test_combine_columns(spe):
+    spe1 = deepcopy(spe)
+    spe2 = deepcopy(spe)
+
+    # TODO: this is a temporary fix until https://github.com/BiocPy/SpatialExperiment/issues/25 is finished
+    spe1.column_data["sample_id"] = [
+        f"{sample_id}_A" for sample_id in spe1.column_data["sample_id"]
+    ]
+    spe2.column_data["sample_id"] = [
+        f"{sample_id}_B" for sample_id in spe2.column_data["sample_id"]
+    ]
+    spe1.img_data["sample_id"] = [
+        f"{sample_id}_A" for sample_id in spe1.img_data["sample_id"]
+    ]
+    spe2.img_data["sample_id"] = [
+        f"{sample_id}_B" for sample_id in spe2.img_data["sample_id"]
+    ]
+
+    combined = ut.combine_columns(spe1, spe2)
+
+    # img_data checks
+    assert combined.img_data.shape[0] == 2 * spe.img_data.shape[0]
+    assert set(combined.column_data["sample_id"]) == set(combined.img_data["sample_id"])
+    assert set(combined.column_data["sample_id"]) == set(
+        spe1.column_data["sample_id"] + spe2.column_data["sample_id"]
+    )
+
+    idx1 = range(spe1.img_data.shape[0])
+    idx2 = range(
+        spe1.img_data.shape[0], spe1.img_data.shape[0] + spe2.img_data.shape[0]
+    )
+    img_data1 = combined.img_data[idx1, :]
+    img_data2 = combined.img_data[idx2, :]
+
+    assert img_data1["sample_id"] == spe1.img_data["sample_id"]
+    assert img_data1["image_id"] == spe1.img_data["image_id"]
+    assert img_data1["data"] == spe1.img_data["data"]
+    assert img_data1["scale_factor"] == spe1.img_data["scale_factor"]
+
+    assert img_data2["sample_id"] == spe2.img_data["sample_id"]
+    assert img_data2["image_id"] == spe2.img_data["image_id"]
+    assert img_data2["data"] == spe2.img_data["data"]
+    assert img_data2["scale_factor"] == spe2.img_data["scale_factor"]
+
+    # spatial_coords checks
+    idx1 = range(spe1.spatial_coords.shape[0])
+    idx2 = range(
+        spe1.spatial_coords.shape[0],
+        spe1.spatial_coords.shape[0] + spe2.spatial_coords.shape[0],
+    )
+    spatial_coords1 = combined.spatial_coords[idx1, :]
+    spatial_coords2 = combined.spatial_coords[idx2, :]
+
+    assert (spatial_coords1.to_pandas() == spe1.spatial_coords.to_pandas()).all().all()
+    assert (spatial_coords2.to_pandas() == spe2.spatial_coords.to_pandas()).all().all()
+
+
+def test_relaxed_combine_columns(spe):
+    nrows, ncols = spe.shape
+    spe2 = spe.set_assays(
+        {
+            "counts": np.random.poisson(lam=10, size=(nrows, ncols)),
+            "normalized": np.random.normal(size=(nrows, ncols))
+        },
+        in_place=False
+    )
+
+    with pytest.raises(Exception):
+        combined = ut.combine_columns(spe, spe2)
+    
+    combined = ut.relaxed_combine_columns(spe, spe2)
+    assert combined is not None
+    assert isinstance(combined, SpatialExperiment)
+    assert combined.shape[1] == spe.shape[1] + spe2.shape[1]
+    assert combined.shape[0] == spe.shape[0]
+
+    combined2 = spe.relaxed_combine_columns(spe2)
+    assert combined2 is not None
+    assert isinstance(combined2, SpatialExperiment)
+    assert combined2.shape[1] == spe.shape[1] + spe2.shape[1]
+    assert combined2.shape[0] == spe.shape[0]
+
+
+def test_duplicate_sample_ids(spe):
+    with pytest.warns(UserWarning):
+        combined = ut.combine_columns(spe, spe)
+
+    assert len(set(combined.column_data["sample_id"])) == 2 * len(
+        set(spe.column_data["sample_id"])
+    )
+    assert combined.shape[0] == spe.shape[0]
+    assert combined.shape[1] == 2 * spe.shape[1]
+    assert combined.rownames == spe.rownames
+    assert set(combined.colnames.as_list()) == set(spe.colnames.as_list())
diff --git a/tests/test_spe_methods.py b/tests/test_spe_methods.py
index 341985c..1dd29ea 100644
--- a/tests/test_spe_methods.py
+++ b/tests/test_spe_methods.py
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@
 y_coords = np.random.uniform(low=0.0, high=100.0, size=ncols)
 spatial_coords = np.column_stack((x_coords, y_coords))
 
+
 def test_spatial_coords_numpy():
     tspe = SpatialExperiment(assays={"counts": counts}, spatial_coords=spatial_coords)
 
diff --git a/tests/test_spi.py b/tests/test_spi.py
index a05c3ed..f7e93c5 100644
--- a/tests/test_spi.py
+++ b/tests/test_spi.py
@@ -1,7 +1,12 @@
 import pytest
 from PIL import Image
 from spatialexperiment import construct_spatial_image_class
-from spatialexperiment.SpatialImage import VirtualSpatialImage, StoredSpatialImage, LoadedSpatialImage, RemoteSpatialImage
+from spatialexperiment.SpatialImage import (
+    VirtualSpatialImage,
+    StoredSpatialImage,
+    LoadedSpatialImage,
+    RemoteSpatialImage,
+)
 
 __author__ = "keviny2"
 __copyright__ = "keviny2"
@@ -18,7 +23,9 @@ def test_spi_constructor_path():
 
 
 def test_spi_constructor_spi():
-    spi_1 = construct_spatial_image_class("tests/images/sample_image1.jpg", is_url=False)
+    spi_1 = construct_spatial_image_class(
+        "tests/images/sample_image1.jpg", is_url=False
+    )
     spi_2 = construct_spatial_image_class(spi_1, is_url=False)
 
     assert issubclass(type(spi_2), VirtualSpatialImage)
@@ -49,9 +56,14 @@ def test_invalid_input():
     with pytest.raises(Exception):
         construct_spatial_image_class(5, is_url=False)
 
+
 def test_spi_equality():
-    spi_path_1 = construct_spatial_image_class("tests/images/sample_image1.jpg", is_url=False)
-    spi_path_2 = construct_spatial_image_class("tests/images/sample_image1.jpg", is_url=False)
+    spi_path_1 = construct_spatial_image_class(
+        "tests/images/sample_image1.jpg", is_url=False
+    )
+    spi_path_2 = construct_spatial_image_class(
+        "tests/images/sample_image1.jpg", is_url=False
+    )
 
     assert spi_path_1 == spi_path_2